According to Rossi (1994) the word shoe (Old English scoh "shoe," from Proto-Germanic skokhaz - source also of Old Norse skor, Danish and Swedish sko, Old Frisian skoch, Old Saxon skoh, Middle Dutch scoe, Dutch schoen, Old High German scuoh, German Schuh, Gothic skoh) means to furtively cover the foot . Black and shoes therefore, presents an interesting combination which I hope the following explanation will help you understand why anything other than black shoes in the business world is historically considered socially unacceptable.
Colour (Latin celare, meaning to conceal or hide) is regarded as a code, sign, or message we use to communicate our thoughts and feelings. Colour vision in primates developed between 38 and 65 million years ago and neurons devoted to visual processing occupy more of the neocortex than those devoted to hearing or touch. Clothing from antiquity was full of colour and only constrained by the limited dyes available. In the West, despite foreboding by St Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430 AD) who accused colour of “a seductive and dangerous sweetness”, the early Christian Church, embraced colour in their churches and clothing and it became an integral part of liturgical garments of both high clergy and the ruling class. Sumptuary laws in some parts of Europe already prohibited the wearing of costly colourful clothes to anyone other than nobility, but as international trade developed and wealth increased amongst the Middle Classes of the city states, bankers and merchants of northern Italy wore black robes and gowns, made from the most expensive fabrics. High-quality black dyes were first made available in the 15th century, and garments of a deep, rich black became popular with Magistrates and government officials. Devoid of colour, official’s black robes, were worn to signify the importance and seriousness of their position. Black became the new fashion and soon the 16th century nobility abandoned their colourful sartoria and adopted black dress for preference.
Black has a pedigree and a history which did not happened by accident. During the Age of Enlightenment, Sir Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727), discovered the colour spectrum appears when you point white light at a prism (1672). Since neither black nor white were within the colour spectrum they were none-colours. This only added to the enigma of black and white. From antiquity the dualism of black (darkness) and white (light) became imprinted on the human psyche and symbolized the moral dichotomy of good and evil. Black was ambiguous and came to be associated with death, evil, mourning, magic, fierceness, illness, bad luck, and mystery. Yet in other cultures black represented age, maturity, and masculinity, as well as both rebirth and mourning. Through the centuries black has also come to symbolize sophistication and formality.
During the Protestant Reformation in Europe (1517 -1648), black came to represent sophistication, culture, power, secrecy and self-control, and was the emblematic colour of the Puritans in England and America. As colourful church interiors and clerical clothing were denounced and colour was regarded idolatry symbolising luxury, sin, and human folly. Colour was a distraction from God, and systematically stripped from all protestant churches. Protestant doctrine, demanded clothing be sober, simple and discreet. Black signified renunciation, self-control and business. The French Revolution (1789 –1799) saw the end of ostentatious, peacock fashions for men, and many public figures and revolutionaries styled themselves as ‘citoyens sans-culottes.’ in solidarity. Black sober clothing became the order of the day and in 1801, Thomas Jefferson almost caused a scandal by wearing black lacing bootees to his inauguration. Jefferson shoes eventually became the preferred shoes for American politicians.
By the early 19th century men's fashions underwent radical change. Gradually long trousers replaced knee breeches. Nineteenth century dandies and men of fashion like Beau Brummell (1778 – 1840) wore black, champagne polished leather boots for town wear. Others followed his example as leading arbiters of fashion like Comte d’Orsay (1801 – 1852), Hermann Fürst von Pückler-Muskau (1785-1871), Honoré de Balzac (1799 – 1850), Barbey d’Aurevilly (1808 – 1889), and Edward VII (1841 – 1910) followed his example and wore black footwear for formal occasions and in town. Social organisation was divided between hunting on the estate where browns were acceptable and doing business in town wearing only black footwear. It was at this point in history the fashion maxim, “no brown in town” or “no brown after six” were very much respected, and ensured people were socially accepted. By the end of the century black was the uniform of power and control and the banking classes, and high society wore it as the uniform of seriousness, high culture and sophistication.
In America, brown shoes became stigmatised because they were associated with cheaply produced footwear for African American slaves and made from undyed leathers. In the eighteenth century, enslaved adults generally received one pair of leather, straight-lasted (i.e., no left or right) shoes in their annual clothing allotment. Some shoes were imported, some purchased from local tradesmen, and others, called "country shoes," were produced on the plantation when a slave was taught the trade. In the nineteenth century, enslaved shoemakers continued to produce country shoes, while other shoes, called red russets ('Ga Bootees, Nigger shoes, or Jackson ties) were massed produced in factories in the North. The wooden-soled brogans so uncomfortable, many slaves preferred to go barefoot. Later, when the Confederate troops were supplied with the same russet shoes, they frequently blacken them with grease and soot so not to be seen wearing brown, sweet potato coloured shoes.
During his reign King Edward VII (1901-1910) saw the introduction of the Edwardian style which would determine international men's fashion. The de rigueur was regulated by exact rules, and published by prominent tailors, as to when and under what circumstances certain clothes were to be worn. Laced, (later elastic sided) boots were generally designed for country walking and appropriate for traveling, and manual labour. Black Oxford shoes were strictly for business. A cap toe was the standard choice for city life while some punctured holes (brogueing) on the toe top decorated men’s country shoes. At first, younger men preferred the oxford over the boot while older men held fast to their traditional boots. For formal wear, black dress pumps sometimes in patent leather, were worn to social events. Nineteenth century bankers and city business men dressed in morning dress with tailcoat, striped trousers and black shoes to match. Each bank had its own distinctive stripes, which became the catalyst for the two and three-piece business suit versions. Dubbed the English Look, by the 20s and 30s pinstripe suits gained popularity in America but were largely worn by the Nouveau Riche including less salubrious types of the Prohibition Era and Hollywood. By the late 1930’s, the influence of Edward the Prince of Wales (1894 – 1972 ) saw a more relaxed set of rules in menswear, leading to softer materials and bolder colours. Edward made spectator (two tone) shoes very popular when photographed wearing them. On set Fred Astaire took to wearing pink socks in his outfits for films.
By the 1950’s, clothing guides such as
Clothes and the Man: A Guide to Correct Dress for all Occasions by Sydney D. Barney in 1951 advised shoes and suit had to match. Like red and green must never be seen. Blue suits with brown shoes was a fashion faux pas. In more conservative circles, black still held a certain association with business, but brown oxford shoes were becoming increasingly popular. Then, in the London Stock Exchange young traders who dared wear brown shoes were booed off the trading floor.
In 2016, a
Social Mobility Commission’s study entitled
Socio-Economic Diversity in Life Sciences and Investment Banking was conducted and it was discovered investment banks were less likely to hire men wearing brown shoes to an interview. Even graduates with first-class degrees from elite universities were rejected when they wore brown shoes to the interview.
According to Rossi (1995), most businessmen are comfortable in ‘masculine shoes. This he postulated, may be in part because they provide compensation or a psychosexual defence for an insecure masculinity. Masculine shoes e.g. Oxfords are the preferred footwear of conformists in personality, habits, attitudes and behavioural patterns. By far Oxford Shoes take the highest preference for city gents with Derbies second, and loafers an aesthetic inferior in the workplace. The modern business psyche in regard to black shoes is they are inconspicuous, do not draw undue attention nor distract clients from the business of the day. In the workplace Black shoes are considered bland, and safe, yet, boost confidence in appearance, and increase the sense of potential and possibility.
The conventions of black dress pre-date the English Look by centuries but the influence of European fashion most certainly impacted on the attire of North American business people. The non-colour black, has long been associated with power and privilege promulgated by ‘protestant chromophobia,’ practised widely among WASPs and transferred into their modern judicial, academic and business clothing. This still exists, although its origins are long forgotten. In the 19th century America brown leather footwear became déclassé in no short measure because of their association with the slave trade.
Bibliography
Batchelor, D. 2000 Chromophobia. Reaktion Books. London
Corvette M 2016
Consuming colour: a critical theory of colour concerning the legality and implications of colour in public space Department of Art Goldsmiths University of London
Footwear C & D Jarnagin Company
Goethe, J. W. 1810 Theory of Colors . C. L. Eastlake (Trans.). Dover (2006)
Harvey, J. 1995 Men in Black. Reaktion Books. London
Pastoureau M 2008
Black - The History of a color Princeton University Press
Rossi WA 1995 The sexlife of the foot and shoe (2nd Edition) Krieger Publishing Company Malabar Florida
